The Savior from the East: Sino-African relations; past, present and future.
Tongkeh Fowale
January 25, 2008
One of the most dramatic revolutions in contemporary African diplomacy is the consolidation of firm ties with China. Though this relationship dates back to the founding of the Peoples´ Republic of China in 1949, Sino-African cooperation has moved through major historical moments to its present stage. This South-South alliance has come to full fruition in the 21st Century and holds the potential of altering the present geopolitical landscape. It has once again brought Africa to the limelight of international debates. Like the Cold War experience, this debate over great power involvement in Africa is of big concern to the new "scramblers for Africa."
The past
Sino-African relations or better still, Africa´ reliance on China is explained by many factors. It is a consummation of post World War 11 relations which were cemented during the anti-colonial struggle. Many African countries are driven into China´s arms because of strained relations with the West. Many more African countries are lining up to carve out their own share of Beijing´s bulging purse, product of China´s "economic miracle."
The most fundamental reason however, that explains the blossoming Sino-African alliance is the apparent lack of interest and abandonment of Africa by Europe, Africa´s traditional partner. For the past three decades or more, Europe has been more pre-occupied with internal wrangling that have bedeviled the functional machinery of the EU. These problems include the crises over the expansion of the EU, constitutional squabbles and the search for quick solutions to the problems of re-adjustment in Eastern Europe after the fall of communism. With these pressing internal problems, Europe adopted an "inward looking" policy which has generally been interpreted as the "abandonment of Africa." In the context of Europe´s urgent problems, Africa was considered a "burden" and liability. China however saw this burden as an opportunity.
Following along the footsteps of communist Russia in spreading communism, China worked hard to create its own sphere in Africa. In the 1960s, following the turbulent political climate in Africa, China´s outlook towards this continent was shaped by its "revolutionary solidarity." Driven by this ideology, China supplied arms to revolutionary movements in Africa. China´s military commitment to Africa at this time was motivated more by ideological considerations than economic imperatives. This was a practical demonstration of what Premier Zhou En Lai described as China´s support for African people in "their struggle to oppose imperialism and old and new colonialism, and to win and safeguard national independence."
For the several decades of European neglect of Africa, China worked hard to consolidate ties with this "forgotten continent." The Sino-Soviet rift and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union gave China an edge in this scramble for Africa. China used this advantage to consolidate old ties and to build new ones for her economic, diplomatic, political and strategic interests in Africa. China showed readiness to assist Africa militarily, economically and diplomatically in a spirit of mutual respect, equality and solidarity. China for example was present at the Special Committee on Decolonization and publicly voiced its opposition to capitalist exploitation and subjugation of Africa. China also sent delegates to the Special Committee against apartheid and gave assisted Africans in their struggle to restore their human dignity.
On Africa´s side, there was considerable reciprocity as Africa missed no opportunity to repay China in kind. It was thanks to African assistance that China was restored to its legitimate seat at the Security Council of the UN in 1971. Africa has consistently been a force behind China´s success in defeating anti-China draft resolutions tabled at the UN Commission on Human Rights, and moves by Taiwan to secure an independent seat at the UN and WHO under the name of the Republic of China. The "one China policy" is a precondition for being China´s friend in Africa. A vast majority of African states are all too willing to adhere to this policy. This has given China a firm bargaining position in international politics, especially at the UN where China wields considerable veto powers.
The demise of Soviet Russia from its superpower status in the 1990s left China as the lone communist power to face a "new world order" under American domination. In the middle of Deng Xiaopeng´s pro-capitalist and market-oriented reforms, China looked to Africa for raw materials and markets to expand its economics base as it entered the international market. As ties between China and Africa intensified, economic considerations replaced ideology in this alliance. The resultant Chinese "economic miracle" placed China as an important and indispensable player in African diplomacy. China displayed this economic prowess by dishing out "soft" loans without "conditionalities" to desperate African states. By the end of the 20th century, many African leaders had realized the economic advantages of being China´s friend and trade partner. By 1999, total Sino-African trade volume stood at US$6.5 billion.
The Present
The 21st Century began with very bright prospects for Sino-African alliance. It was marked by the "China-Africa Cooperation Forum – Beijing 2000 Ministerial Meeting. This forum held in October 2000 was the first collective dialogue between China and African countries. It laid the foundations for the development of firm Sino-African ties in the third millennium. At this forum, President Jiang Zemin called on China and Africa "to make concerted efforts to establish a new international political and economic order." Since 1999, the trade volume between Africa and China has been on a remarkable rise. China´s economic pressure on Africa forced some Africa countries to switch recognition from Taiwan to China. This is what Chad did in 2006. Today, China has successfully carved out a place for itself as Africa´s third trading partner only after the US and France.
China´s presence in Africa today is quite visible and unmistakable. This is particularly felt in the area of technical and infrastructural projects throughout the continent. The "cold war era" TAN-ZAM railway line stands as historical proof of China´s technical assistance to Africa in times of need. This "road of freedom" as the Chinese call it, was of strategic importance to Southern Africa in its struggle against apartheid and colonial oppression. In other parts of Africa, Chinese investors and government agencies have invested heavily in such projects as roads, hydroelectric dams, hospitals, presidential palaces, bridges, telephone networks, ports and harbors.
Determined to concretize its hegemony in Africa, Beijing issued what it called "China´s Africa Policy" early in 2006. Li Zhaoxing, China´s Foreign Minister, made Africa the destination of his first diplomatic tour to highlight the importance of Africa in China´s foreign policy calculations. The same message was repeated by President Hu Jin Tao in his Africa tours in April 2006 and again in 2007. The monumental summit dubbed "Forum on China-Africa Summit," held in November 2006 finally confirmed China´s undisputed sway over Africa. In this summit, 48 African leaders lined up in Beijing to negotiate over 2000 businesses with China. Among other packages, China pledged US$3billionin preferential loans and US$2 billion in export credits. China also made commitments to double foreign aid to Africa in a gesture of goodwill and solidarity. This historical summit was rivaled in scale only by the EU-Africa Summit in Lisbon, Portugal in December 2007. However, in terms of consensus and practical benefits for Africa, the Lisbon lags behind Beijing.
The future.
China´s increasing influence over Africa remains an object of heated controversy in contemporary international politics. This new South-South alliance, or what Mao Ze Dung called "the Third World Alliance" is significantly altering the geopolitical power balance of this century, tilting it to China´s favor. Whether out of frustration with Chinese economic and diplomatic gains in Africa, or out of genuine concern, the West increasingly sees China as a bad example for the nascent democracies of Africa. China therefore comes under heavy criticism from the West on many charges. There is little doubt that these pressures will impact directly or indirectly on China´s attitude towards Africa.
China carries a bad name for condoning regimes that have been considered as "predators of democracy" in Africa. These governments which are at the center of human rights violations, dictatorships and repression always seek sanctuary under Chinese diplomatic cover. Paul Wolfowitz, former President of the World Bank criticized China for ignoring human rights and environmental concerns when lending to developing countries. Chinese banks have been rebuked for not adhering to what western donors consider as environmentally friendly "equator principles" of lending. Likewise, Chinese banks are not required to be transparent about their deals with African dictators. Bob Geldof, the Live 8 campaigner seriously warned that attempts to stamp out corruption in Africa risk being undermined by soft loans and what he described as "naked mercantilism from China."
China´s arms deals with African states have also been an issue of worry. China distinguishes itself as the number one supplier of military hardware to African states considered as rogue, pariah and distasteful to the West. Zimbabwe and Sudan stand out in this category. China´s friendship with Khartoum is considered an obstacle to efforts at reaching peace in the chaotic Darfur. "China can´t continue to protect human rights abusers at the expense of civilians just because it is profitable to do so," said Peter Takirambudde, Africa director of Human Rights Watch. China´s arms sales to both sides of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war has also generally been considered as a neo-colonial style "double standard" which runs short of the "win-win" relationship proclaimed by Beijing.
Within Africa, there are visible signs of skepticism, budding tension and friction in what the outside world sees as a smooth alliance between China and Africa. South African President Thabo Mbeki urged caution towards China as he feared a Chinese form of colonialism. Anti-Chinese riots in Zambia in 2006 also point to this crack. Opposition leader Michael Sata gained popularity after accusing China of transforming Zambia into what he called "a dumping ground for their citizens." The poor treatment of African workers in Chinese-owned mines has always been the object of protest and threats in this country.
The issue of migration constitutes another test ground for the firmness of Sino-African ties. Throughout modern African history, all who claim to be Africa´s friends and partners have had to grapple with the problem of African emigration. This is true of Europe, America and the Middle East. It remains to be seen how much sanctuary China can offer African migrants in this atmosphere of booming trade between both sides. At present, there is no adequate mechanism to cater for the increasing number of migrants from Africa who are driven by the harsh poverty in Africa. Judging by the weak bargaining position of African embassies in Beijing, many African migrants are left to the mercy of whoever poses as employer, under conditions that range from good to deplorable. In order to avoid the messy scenario of African migrants stranded on European coastal waters, China and Africa need to give urgent attention to the plight of migrants on both sides in the spirit of "mutual respect" that is supposed to be the pillar of Sino-African cooperation.
Faced with a myriad of criticisms, China struggles to defend itself. Wei Jianguo, a government minister rejected Wolfowitz´s criticism arguing that China´s investments in Africa were like "sending firewood in the snow" and would provide some of the world´s poorest countries with infrastructure development that they really need. On his part, Feng zhang, a Chinese foreign policy analyst observed "China´s interests have been very good for Africa." Continued Zhang, "Chinese companies are building roads and hospitals and generally go were western companies do not dare to go."
Despite its seemingly unbending stance, China is beginning to realize the need to adopt a proactive diplomacy towards Africa. Under diplomatic pressure and the need to preserve its international image, China has issued critical comments to the Khartoum government over its approach to the Darfur crisis. To dispel rumors and allegations of instituting a colonial style "divide and rule" system in Africa, China poses as an advocate of African unity and has pledged its support for NEPAD. Beijing has also visibly and significantly reduced its tone and overtures to Zimbabwe which stands out today as the most hated African regime in the west.
The international debate about Sino-African relations continues to gather steam. From every indication, China does not seem to be budged by western rhetoric about its oil and mineral adventures in Africa. China has repeatedly proclaimed that its alliance with Africa is based on equality, mutual respect and non intervention in the internal affairs of other states.
Africa on its part welcomes China as a bulwark and bargain chip against the West which is waking up from slumber and trying to drag Africa into what it now calls "Equal Partnership Agreements" (EPA) after decades of neglect and undelivered promises.
In turning down EU proposals at the December 2007 EU-Africa summit in Lisbon, Africa was very confident of support from its new friend. "It´s clear that Africa rejects the EPA´s… we´ve rejected them" said Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade. The radical Muammar Qathafi put it in categorical terms "we are buying goods from them and can close our markets and buy cheap goods from China." What does this apparent self confidence on the part of Africa mean? The answer is not hard to find. Africa is very capable of allowing itself to be courted by anyone, at anytime, but never forever. This is as much lesson for Europe and America as it is for the new-found guest, China.
The past
Sino-African relations or better still, Africa´ reliance on China is explained by many factors. It is a consummation of post World War 11 relations which were cemented during the anti-colonial struggle. Many African countries are driven into China´s arms because of strained relations with the West. Many more African countries are lining up to carve out their own share of Beijing´s bulging purse, product of China´s "economic miracle."
The most fundamental reason however, that explains the blossoming Sino-African alliance is the apparent lack of interest and abandonment of Africa by Europe, Africa´s traditional partner. For the past three decades or more, Europe has been more pre-occupied with internal wrangling that have bedeviled the functional machinery of the EU. These problems include the crises over the expansion of the EU, constitutional squabbles and the search for quick solutions to the problems of re-adjustment in Eastern Europe after the fall of communism. With these pressing internal problems, Europe adopted an "inward looking" policy which has generally been interpreted as the "abandonment of Africa." In the context of Europe´s urgent problems, Africa was considered a "burden" and liability. China however saw this burden as an opportunity.
Following along the footsteps of communist Russia in spreading communism, China worked hard to create its own sphere in Africa. In the 1960s, following the turbulent political climate in Africa, China´s outlook towards this continent was shaped by its "revolutionary solidarity." Driven by this ideology, China supplied arms to revolutionary movements in Africa. China´s military commitment to Africa at this time was motivated more by ideological considerations than economic imperatives. This was a practical demonstration of what Premier Zhou En Lai described as China´s support for African people in "their struggle to oppose imperialism and old and new colonialism, and to win and safeguard national independence."
For the several decades of European neglect of Africa, China worked hard to consolidate ties with this "forgotten continent." The Sino-Soviet rift and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union gave China an edge in this scramble for Africa. China used this advantage to consolidate old ties and to build new ones for her economic, diplomatic, political and strategic interests in Africa. China showed readiness to assist Africa militarily, economically and diplomatically in a spirit of mutual respect, equality and solidarity. China for example was present at the Special Committee on Decolonization and publicly voiced its opposition to capitalist exploitation and subjugation of Africa. China also sent delegates to the Special Committee against apartheid and gave assisted Africans in their struggle to restore their human dignity.
On Africa´s side, there was considerable reciprocity as Africa missed no opportunity to repay China in kind. It was thanks to African assistance that China was restored to its legitimate seat at the Security Council of the UN in 1971. Africa has consistently been a force behind China´s success in defeating anti-China draft resolutions tabled at the UN Commission on Human Rights, and moves by Taiwan to secure an independent seat at the UN and WHO under the name of the Republic of China. The "one China policy" is a precondition for being China´s friend in Africa. A vast majority of African states are all too willing to adhere to this policy. This has given China a firm bargaining position in international politics, especially at the UN where China wields considerable veto powers.
The demise of Soviet Russia from its superpower status in the 1990s left China as the lone communist power to face a "new world order" under American domination. In the middle of Deng Xiaopeng´s pro-capitalist and market-oriented reforms, China looked to Africa for raw materials and markets to expand its economics base as it entered the international market. As ties between China and Africa intensified, economic considerations replaced ideology in this alliance. The resultant Chinese "economic miracle" placed China as an important and indispensable player in African diplomacy. China displayed this economic prowess by dishing out "soft" loans without "conditionalities" to desperate African states. By the end of the 20th century, many African leaders had realized the economic advantages of being China´s friend and trade partner. By 1999, total Sino-African trade volume stood at US$6.5 billion.
The Present
The 21st Century began with very bright prospects for Sino-African alliance. It was marked by the "China-Africa Cooperation Forum – Beijing 2000 Ministerial Meeting. This forum held in October 2000 was the first collective dialogue between China and African countries. It laid the foundations for the development of firm Sino-African ties in the third millennium. At this forum, President Jiang Zemin called on China and Africa "to make concerted efforts to establish a new international political and economic order." Since 1999, the trade volume between Africa and China has been on a remarkable rise. China´s economic pressure on Africa forced some Africa countries to switch recognition from Taiwan to China. This is what Chad did in 2006. Today, China has successfully carved out a place for itself as Africa´s third trading partner only after the US and France.
China´s presence in Africa today is quite visible and unmistakable. This is particularly felt in the area of technical and infrastructural projects throughout the continent. The "cold war era" TAN-ZAM railway line stands as historical proof of China´s technical assistance to Africa in times of need. This "road of freedom" as the Chinese call it, was of strategic importance to Southern Africa in its struggle against apartheid and colonial oppression. In other parts of Africa, Chinese investors and government agencies have invested heavily in such projects as roads, hydroelectric dams, hospitals, presidential palaces, bridges, telephone networks, ports and harbors.
Determined to concretize its hegemony in Africa, Beijing issued what it called "China´s Africa Policy" early in 2006. Li Zhaoxing, China´s Foreign Minister, made Africa the destination of his first diplomatic tour to highlight the importance of Africa in China´s foreign policy calculations. The same message was repeated by President Hu Jin Tao in his Africa tours in April 2006 and again in 2007. The monumental summit dubbed "Forum on China-Africa Summit," held in November 2006 finally confirmed China´s undisputed sway over Africa. In this summit, 48 African leaders lined up in Beijing to negotiate over 2000 businesses with China. Among other packages, China pledged US$3billionin preferential loans and US$2 billion in export credits. China also made commitments to double foreign aid to Africa in a gesture of goodwill and solidarity. This historical summit was rivaled in scale only by the EU-Africa Summit in Lisbon, Portugal in December 2007. However, in terms of consensus and practical benefits for Africa, the Lisbon lags behind Beijing.
The future.
China´s increasing influence over Africa remains an object of heated controversy in contemporary international politics. This new South-South alliance, or what Mao Ze Dung called "the Third World Alliance" is significantly altering the geopolitical power balance of this century, tilting it to China´s favor. Whether out of frustration with Chinese economic and diplomatic gains in Africa, or out of genuine concern, the West increasingly sees China as a bad example for the nascent democracies of Africa. China therefore comes under heavy criticism from the West on many charges. There is little doubt that these pressures will impact directly or indirectly on China´s attitude towards Africa.
China carries a bad name for condoning regimes that have been considered as "predators of democracy" in Africa. These governments which are at the center of human rights violations, dictatorships and repression always seek sanctuary under Chinese diplomatic cover. Paul Wolfowitz, former President of the World Bank criticized China for ignoring human rights and environmental concerns when lending to developing countries. Chinese banks have been rebuked for not adhering to what western donors consider as environmentally friendly "equator principles" of lending. Likewise, Chinese banks are not required to be transparent about their deals with African dictators. Bob Geldof, the Live 8 campaigner seriously warned that attempts to stamp out corruption in Africa risk being undermined by soft loans and what he described as "naked mercantilism from China."
China´s arms deals with African states have also been an issue of worry. China distinguishes itself as the number one supplier of military hardware to African states considered as rogue, pariah and distasteful to the West. Zimbabwe and Sudan stand out in this category. China´s friendship with Khartoum is considered an obstacle to efforts at reaching peace in the chaotic Darfur. "China can´t continue to protect human rights abusers at the expense of civilians just because it is profitable to do so," said Peter Takirambudde, Africa director of Human Rights Watch. China´s arms sales to both sides of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war has also generally been considered as a neo-colonial style "double standard" which runs short of the "win-win" relationship proclaimed by Beijing.
Within Africa, there are visible signs of skepticism, budding tension and friction in what the outside world sees as a smooth alliance between China and Africa. South African President Thabo Mbeki urged caution towards China as he feared a Chinese form of colonialism. Anti-Chinese riots in Zambia in 2006 also point to this crack. Opposition leader Michael Sata gained popularity after accusing China of transforming Zambia into what he called "a dumping ground for their citizens." The poor treatment of African workers in Chinese-owned mines has always been the object of protest and threats in this country.
The issue of migration constitutes another test ground for the firmness of Sino-African ties. Throughout modern African history, all who claim to be Africa´s friends and partners have had to grapple with the problem of African emigration. This is true of Europe, America and the Middle East. It remains to be seen how much sanctuary China can offer African migrants in this atmosphere of booming trade between both sides. At present, there is no adequate mechanism to cater for the increasing number of migrants from Africa who are driven by the harsh poverty in Africa. Judging by the weak bargaining position of African embassies in Beijing, many African migrants are left to the mercy of whoever poses as employer, under conditions that range from good to deplorable. In order to avoid the messy scenario of African migrants stranded on European coastal waters, China and Africa need to give urgent attention to the plight of migrants on both sides in the spirit of "mutual respect" that is supposed to be the pillar of Sino-African cooperation.
Faced with a myriad of criticisms, China struggles to defend itself. Wei Jianguo, a government minister rejected Wolfowitz´s criticism arguing that China´s investments in Africa were like "sending firewood in the snow" and would provide some of the world´s poorest countries with infrastructure development that they really need. On his part, Feng zhang, a Chinese foreign policy analyst observed "China´s interests have been very good for Africa." Continued Zhang, "Chinese companies are building roads and hospitals and generally go were western companies do not dare to go."
Despite its seemingly unbending stance, China is beginning to realize the need to adopt a proactive diplomacy towards Africa. Under diplomatic pressure and the need to preserve its international image, China has issued critical comments to the Khartoum government over its approach to the Darfur crisis. To dispel rumors and allegations of instituting a colonial style "divide and rule" system in Africa, China poses as an advocate of African unity and has pledged its support for NEPAD. Beijing has also visibly and significantly reduced its tone and overtures to Zimbabwe which stands out today as the most hated African regime in the west.
The international debate about Sino-African relations continues to gather steam. From every indication, China does not seem to be budged by western rhetoric about its oil and mineral adventures in Africa. China has repeatedly proclaimed that its alliance with Africa is based on equality, mutual respect and non intervention in the internal affairs of other states.
Africa on its part welcomes China as a bulwark and bargain chip against the West which is waking up from slumber and trying to drag Africa into what it now calls "Equal Partnership Agreements" (EPA) after decades of neglect and undelivered promises.
In turning down EU proposals at the December 2007 EU-Africa summit in Lisbon, Africa was very confident of support from its new friend. "It´s clear that Africa rejects the EPA´s… we´ve rejected them" said Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade. The radical Muammar Qathafi put it in categorical terms "we are buying goods from them and can close our markets and buy cheap goods from China." What does this apparent self confidence on the part of Africa mean? The answer is not hard to find. Africa is very capable of allowing itself to be courted by anyone, at anytime, but never forever. This is as much lesson for Europe and America as it is for the new-found guest, China.
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